funds

Many communities face shortages in public funds for their libraries. As a result, public libraries often must restructure their budgets to spend more on access to information from online sources, such as the Internet, and less on acquiring materials for their own permanent collections. They also must often spend more on popular materials and less on important but esoteric or highly specialized resources. In addition to relying on funds from public sources, public libraries actively solicit financial assistance from private individuals, organizations, and corporations. Most public libraries form special committees that seek financial gifts and grants from various private sources. In the United States and Canada, local residents organize volunteer groups, usually called Friends of the Library, that raise funds to supplement public library budgets. For example, Friends of the Library chapters raise funds for library materials such as special books and periodicals, for services such as literacy programs and reading groups, and for library amenities such as fountains and plants that make the library building more welcoming. The chapters raise these funds through activities such as selling annual memberships to individuals, sponsoring used-book sales, and selling tickets to lectures. Many public libraries have responded to budget shortfalls by imposing user fees for some services. Public libraries have introduced fees for special services such as making photocopies of library materials, providing access to specialized online databases, and filling requests by businesses for reference services. Most studies estimate that between 70 and 80 percent of publicly supported libraries in the United States routinely charge various sorts of user fees. Critics of user fees at publicly supported libraries contend that such fees are a form of discrimination based on a user's ability to pay. The American Library Association argues that librarians should develop "alternative models and methods of library administration that minimize distinctions among users based on their economic status or financial condition." A10Major Public Libraries The New York Public Library-consisting of 4 research libraries and 85 branch libraries-is the largest public library system in the United States. Founded in 1895, its collections total more than 13 million volumes. Other major public library systems in the United States include the County of Los Angeles Public Library, the Los Angeles Public Library, and the San Francisco Public Library, all in California; the Chicago Public Library, in Illinois; the Boston Public Library, in Massachusetts; the Brooklyn Public Library and the Queen's Borough Public Library, both in New York; the Cleveland Public Library and the Cincinnati & Hamilton County Public Library, both in Ohio; the Free Library of Philadelphia and the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh, both in Pennsylvania; and the Seattle Public Library, in Washington state. The Toronto Public Library, founded in 1884 in Ontario, is the oldest and largest public library system in Canada. In 1998 it merged with the former library systems in several surrounding communities. The newly enlarged Toronto Public Library maintains collections of 9 million items in 98 branches. Other major public library systems in Canada include the Vancouver Public Library in British Columbia and the Ottawa Public Library in Ontario. For information on public library systems in other countries, see the Libraries of the World section of this article. BSchool Libraries School libraries serve elementary schools, middle schools, junior high schools, and high schools. The main function of a school library is to support various educational programs and to develop students' skills in locating and using information. Teachers use school libraries to access information needed to develop and support their classroom instruction. Students use the materials in school libraries to perform their class work. In the 1993-94 school year, 96 percent of all public schools and 80 percent of all private schools in the United States had libraries. Public schools maintained more than 77,000 libraries, and private schools had nearly 21,000 libraries. Because private schools have relatively small enrollments, they are less likely than are public schools to have a library. School libraries usually maintain collections in a variety of media. In addition to books, magazines, and newspapers, school libraries may contain photographs, films, sound and video recordings, computers, CD-ROMs, games, and maps. Some school libraries contain realia, or real artifacts such as various types of stones for the study of geology. An increasing number of school libraries have computer labs with computer workstations, software, and Internet connections. Because school libraries often emphasize the variety of media in their collections, they are sometimes referred to as library media centers. Most school libraries further enhance their collections by becoming members of school library networks; this allows them to share resources with libraries in other schools. School librarians-sometimes called media specialists-select library materials and offer instruction to promote access, delivery, and interpretation of information. For example, school librarians might ensure that their libraries' collections contain information to assist students in completing particular classroom assignments. They might also offer classes in searching online catalogs for research materials. Once students locate materials, school librarians might help them interpret the information contained in these resources and apply it to their classroom assignments. School librarians typically have credentials in teaching as well as in library science. This allows them to participate in school administration and curriculum development in addition to managing their library duties. Students at each educational level have unique needs and interests. Accordingly, libraries that serve different school levels maintain different types of collections and offer a different range of services. B1Elementary School Libraries Elementary school libraries play a central role in early childhood education by offering young children some of their earliest encounters with books and other resources. These libraries generally feature illustrated children's storybooks, coloring books, and audio and visual materials. Most elementary school libraries also contain reference materials such as encyclopedias, as well as fiction and nonfiction books aimed at older elementary school students. Some elementary school libraries feature computers with children's educational software. In the primary grades (typically kindergarten through grade three) children attend special classes to help them develop basic skills in retrieving information from the library. Students learn how to search through their school library's catalog, find a book on the shelves, and check out the book from the circulation desk. Elementary school students may also use the school library to browse through the materials, learn basic computer skills, or listen to stories. A growing number of schools encourage students in the later grades of elementary school (typically grades four through six) to come to the library throughout the day to conduct research for school assignments, to read for pleasure, and to meet and work with their peers. This flexible scheduling allows schools to integrate research skills and library resources into daily classroom instruction. B2Middle School and Junior High School Libraries Libraries at the middle school or junior high school level (typically grades six or seven through eight or nine) concentrate on maintaining students' interest in gaining information and developing ideas. Classes at this school level usually introduce students to individual and small-group research projects. To adequately support classroom assignments, middle school and junior high school libraries usually offer larger and more varied collections than those at the elementary level. They also often supplement these collections with computer databases and more sophisticated bibliographic tools. B3High School Libraries Libraries at the high school level (typically grades 9 or 10 through 12) differ in several ways from those serving the lower grades. Because classes at the high school level require students to conduct more research, high school libraries usually have larger and more advanced collections than do libraries in the lower grades. The collections of high school libraries are generally capable of supporting instruction in mathematics, science, technology, social sciences, the humanities, the arts, literature, and foreign languages. In addition, because students must spend more of their time conducting research, high school libraries are usually large enough to accommodate at least 20 percent of the entire student body at any given time. The best-equipped high school libraries feature computer labs, professional reference resources for teachers, conference and group study areas, and classrooms within the library. Most high school libraries also include separate areas devoted to college or vocational preparation. These areas typically contain information on individual colleges, examples of college applications, vocational aptitude tests, and other materials designed to provide guidance for graduating high school students. B4Funding Schools in the United States have not always had a large number of libraries. As recently as 1958 about half of the public schools in the United States had no libraries at all. The number of public school libraries increased dramatically when the federal government passed the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, which provided funds for school districts to improve their education programs and facilities, including their libraries. Nevertheless, many educators claim that since the legislation was passed federal spending has not increased sufficiently to meet the rising cost of new library technologies such as computer databases and Internet access. Because the federal government provides only limited funds to schools, individual school districts rely on funds from local property taxes to meet the vast majority of public school expenses. Therefore, the libraries of public schools tend to reflect the financial capabilities of the communities in which they are located. Districts in wealthy suburbs often have fully staffed libraries with abundant resources, spacious facilities, and curricular and instructional support. In contrast, school districts in many poor areas house their libraries in ordinary classrooms or in small rooms. The libraries in such areas are generally staffed by volunteers, who organize and maintain books that are often out-of-date, irrelevant, or damaged. See also Public Education in the United States. CCollege and University Libraries Research plays a central role in the academic work of students and faculty at colleges and universities. As a result, college and university libraries-also called academic libraries-are often considered the most important resource of an institution of higher education. Because students and faculty at colleges and universities may wish to conduct research within any conceivable academic discipline, the collections of academic libraries usually reflect a vast range of interests and formats. Academic libraries range in size from the modest collections found in small liberal arts colleges to the immense collections found at research universities. Research universities maintain some of the largest libraries in the world. Most academic libraries are linked to other libraries in cooperative networks, enabling them to share scarce and little-used materials required for advanced research. Many academic libraries open their collections to the public, although borrowing privileges are often limited for users not affiliated with the college or university. In the mid-1990s the United States had more than 3,300 academic libraries containing a total of about 800 million volumes. Canada had more than 500 academic libraries containing a total of about 100 million volumes. The largest academic library in the world is at Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The Harvard library contains more than 13.6 million volumes. The largest academic library in Canada is the University of Toronto Library, which maintains a collection of more than 8.5 million volumes. Large research universities often have separate libraries within individual academic departments, schools, or colleges. For example, academic branch libraries may devote their collections exclusively to agriculture, art, chemistry, math, psychology, or other academic disciplines. Universities may also divide their libraries into undergraduate and graduate divisions. Undergraduate libraries typically offer relatively general materials needed to support study toward a four-year, undergraduate degree. Graduate libraries contain materials for more specialized study toward an advanced, graduate degree. Some academic libraries also have separate buildings for rare books, handwritten manuscripts, maps, and other specialized collections. Academic libraries generally attempt to expand their holdings on an ongoing basis. However, during the 1990s acquisition of expensive printed materials began slowing at most academic libraries as more funds were devoted to the acquisition of new computers, telecommunications equipment for access to the Internet, and online databases. Because of the complexity, range, and diversity of formats and information in academic libraries, colleges and universities offer programs to introduce incoming students and faculty to the institution's library services. These programs are designed to teach new users effective ways to make use of a variety of reference tools and library search mechanisms. In some parts of the United States, college accreditation agencies require institutions to offer library-sponsored courses on information retrieval and evaluation. See also Colleges and Universities. DResearch Libraries Research libraries contain collections of unique materials to support the needs of advanced and highly specialized scholarship. These collections may include rare manuscripts and books, scientific documents, important printings of literary works, regional histories, genealogies, original musical scores, or other distinctive scholarly resources. Because these collections may contain many rare and valuable materials, their use is typically confined to the library buildings. Research libraries often publish scholarly studies of the materials in their collections, sponsor lectures and colloquia, and arrange exhibitions of their most important holdings. Most colleges and universities have rare books or special collections departments in their libraries, and many maintain research libraries devoted entirely to such collections. For example, the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut, maintains early manuscripts and rare books in the fields of literature, theology, history, and the natural sciences. Also notable is the Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library at the University of Toronto. This library maintains diverse collections ranging from a 1789 BC Babylonian cuneiform tablet to British and French literature and to works by contemporary Canadian writers. Many important research libraries are unaffiliated with a college or university. For example, the Folger Shakespeare Library in Washington, D.C., is an independent library that maintains the world's largest collection of printed works by English poet and playwright William Shakespeare, in addition to books and manuscripts from the Renaissance on a variety of subjects. The Newberry Library in Chicago houses notable collections in history, literature, and the fine arts. The Library Company of Philadelphia, in Pennsylvania, specializes in American history from the 17th through the 19th century. The library of the American Philosophical Society, also in Philadelphia, is a center for research in the histories of science, medicine, and technology. The American Antiquarian Society in Worcester, Massachusetts, maintains collections in early American history. The Huntington Library in San Marino, California, has an extensive collection of rare books and manuscripts of British and American history and literature. The Family History Library in Salt Lake City, Utah, has the world's largest collection of genealogical materials. It is operated by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. The Pierpont Morgan Library in New York City contains large collections of early printed books, medieval manuscripts, early book bindings, and American historical documents. Although some research libraries permit only selected scholars to access their collections, many notable research libraries in the United States open their collections to the general public. The four research centers of the New York Public Library contain more than 40 million items (including about 13 million books), making it the world's largest publicly accessible research library complex. Its research centers consist of the Center for the Humanities, housed in the Central Research Building of the library; the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts, located in the Lincoln Center complex; the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, in Harlem; and the Science, Industry and Business Library, located in the Manhattan business district on Madison Avenue. The rare books and manuscripts division, housed in the Center for the Humanities, maintains a strong collection of Americana, especially books printed before 1801. Notable rarities include the only known copy of the 1493 Barcelona, Spain printing of the letter by Italian Spanish explorer Christopher Columbus announcing his arrival in the New World; the Bay Psalm Book, printed in 1640, which was the first book printed in what would become the United States; and a copy of the first printing of the Declaration of Independence in 1776. The division also has a complete copy of a Gutenberg Bible, printed sometime between 1450 and 1456, as well as impressive collections in the fields of English and American literature, children's literature, and science fiction. The library's manuscript holdings include British and American historical documents and excellent examples of medieval illuminated manuscripts. The Boston Public Library, founded in 1848, also houses a vast research collection that is open to the public. The library's holdings include more than one million rare books and manuscripts; maps; original musical scores by Austrian composer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Russian composer Sergey Sergeyevich Prokofiev, and others; several first-edition folios by William Shakespeare; and the personal library of John Adams, the second president of the United States. Many research libraries are members of organizations that allow them to jointly publish catalogs of their holdings, collectively purchase library materials, and share other resources. The Association of Research Libraries represents more than 120 libraries in Canada and the United States. The organization serves as a forum to address common concerns of research libraries, to forge coalitions among libraries, and to support innovation and improvement in library operations. The Center for Research Libraries in Chicago enables more than 160 member libraries in Canada and the United States to collectively store, preserve, and distribute infrequently used materials. Most large research libraries in the United States publish descriptions and locations of their collections in catalogs compiled by online bibliographic programs such as the Online Computer Library Center or the Research Libraries Information Network. Smaller research libraries in the United States list their holdings in the National Union Catalog of Manuscript Collections, a compendium of research library collections published by the Library of Congress. Scholars use all of these catalogs to locate materials in research libraries throughout the country. ESpecial Libraries Many corporations, private businesses, government agencies, museums, religious institutions, hospitals, associations, and other organizations maintain their own libraries to serve the specialized needs of their employees or members. These libraries are commonly called special libraries, but they may also be called information centers, research centers, or technical libraries. The collections of special libraries depend on the specific needs of the organizations they serve. For example, a law firm may maintain its own library of legal documents for use by its lawyers and staff, while a hospital may operate a library of materials in the health sciences to serve its doctors and nurses. In addition to performing the same functions as other libraries, special libraries evaluate, package, and present information to users in ways designed to increase productivity and add to the efficiency of their parent organization. They achieve these goals by reducing the time that employees spend searching for data and by providing information that facilitates improved decision making. Special librarians must be able to design and manage library collections and services to meet the specific needs of the individuals or organization being served. To do this, they require in-depth knowledge of the sources of information in specialized subject areas such as biology, business, and law.

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